Qigong (based on the
idea of qi in ancient India frequently termed 'prana' where it formed a basis
for among others various forms of 'yoga') is the result of practices that along
with Buddhism where (possible also re-)imported into China where they were
mixed with local practices sourced in forms of Shamanism later called Daoism.
In fact oracle bone inscriptions from as early as the Zhou dynasty make
references to qi. In these inscriptions, the Chinese character for qi refers to
the study vapors one observes in the air as when one exhales through the mouth
on a cold day. For something to be accepted as factual in the physical world,
one must be able to interpret it somehow by one or more of the five human
senses. In this light, qi can be experienced within the human body as a feeling
of a warm, physical sensation. In the practice of qigong, practitioners regard
qi as energy in the human body.
Case Study 1: Early
Daoism and the Five Seals.
In later
inscriptions, the Chinese character for qi refers to vapors (here thus not
unlike 'prana') one observes in the air as when one exhales through the mouth
on a cold day. For something to be accepted as factual in the physical world,
one must be able to interpret it somehow by one or more of the five human
senses. In this light, qi can be experienced within the human body as a feeling
of a warm, physical sensation. In the practice of qigong, practitioners regard
qi as energy in the human body. Thus Qigong became a Chinese system of
self-healing that is believed to manipulate the flow of energy or qi in the
body. Qi is also believed to be a kind of energy or natural force which exists
in nature and fills the universe. For this reason, various kinds of
energies can be referred to as qi. For example, in Chinese, anything dealing
with electricity usually contains the word "dian"
and electrical energy is commonly referred to as "dian
qi." In Chinese the term "tian" refers to heaven. In ancient
times, the heavenly bodies such as the sun and the moon were understood to have
heavenly energy over the Earth. This heavenly energy was directed to the earth
in ways such as when the sun shines on the Earth and, therefore, the term
"tian qt' was appropriated. Interestingly, "tian qi" is still
used to refer to weather in Chinese. In qigong philosophy, it is believed that
qi always tries to maintain balance. For example, when "tian qi"
(weather) is off balance too much rain may fall, resulting in floods; conversely,
too little rain can lead to drought. When "tian qi" is balanced,
plants will grow and animals can survive. Thus, according to this philosophy,
qi is believed to exist in heaven, earth, and within every living thing,
including the human body. In Chinese, the term "gong" can be
genera1ly translated as "work" and can be more specifically applied
to any special skill or study that requires time, energy, and patience.s For this reason, the term qigong can also be understood
as any training or study that deals with the understanding and manipulation of
internal human qi/energy. The term qigong however is a neologism that was
created during the 1959's; however, it is believed that that which qigong
refers to has a history of more than five thousand years. (For this see Cen Yuefang, Chinese Qigong Essentials, Beijing China: New
World Press, 1996 pp.,8. 7 Ibid., 8).
Thus the
term qigong has been given to a range of ancient practices in a retrospective
manner. Throughout the many years of its development mostly (but not always)
within various Daoist sects, these practices are believed to have been known by
many other names such as daoyin, which can be
understood as "conduction of vital energy in the human body:' tuna, which
can be understood as "expiration and inhalation," zuochan,
which can be understood as '''sitting in meditation:' and xinqi,
which can be understood as ''promoting the circulation of qi. The ancient
Chinese practices that are currently labeled as qigong can thus be understood
as a system which is not limited to but includes spiritual beliefs and
practices, philosophy, and deep breathing exercises. Practitioners of qigong
believe that these practices have the potential to enhance hea1th, prolong
life, and enrich spiritual awareness and insight.
Case Study P.2: A General History of Daoist Sects.
An in
depth article about qi and acupuncture on our website has
been written in German, and the best source in English to date
is The Encyclopedia of Daoism ( ed. F. Pregadio).Based
on these we can say that references to qi are made throughout the Chinese
philosophical c1assics. Zuozhuan is a commentary on chunqiu (spring and autumn annals), which is a text in the
classical Confucian canon. In this commentary, there is mention of six qi of nature,
which are yin, yang, wind, rain, c1ouds, and light. These six qi of nature give
rise to the four seasons. By the sixth century B.C., qi is seen as the cause of
all natural events. In a collection of early Chinese materials put together
from various sources by Liu Xiang (79 B.C-6 RC.) in 26 B.C. entitled "Book
of Master Guan" (Guanzi, minister of the state
of Qi 647 B.C.), there is mention of jingqi
(quintessential qi). In the chapter entitled "Shuyan"
(cardinal sayings), there is the theory that qi causes and sustains all forms
of life in the universe. Xunzi, the classical
Confucian scholar known for logical analysis and argumentation, elaborates on Guanzi's theory. According to Xunzi,
water and fire have qi but no life. Human beings, however, can have qi, life,
knowledge, and morality. Mengzi (Mencius), another classical Confucian scholar
known for his argumentation and ethical thinking focusing on heart and mind,
speaks of qi as a life force pervading the whole person. In his view, both the
heart and mind are refined qi on a higher level. Furthermore, the heart and
mind has the power to control qi. Qi can acquire amoral force by development of
the heart and mind and an understanding of the way of heaven and earth. Zhou
Yan, a cosmologist who systematized yin and yang, developed the theory of the
five powers. The five powers are earth, metal, wood, water, and fire. According
to the thought of Zhou Yan; the earth generates metal, metal water, water wood,
wood fire, and fire earth; and earth conquers water, water fire, fire metal,
metal wood, and wood earth. Zhou Yan uses his theory to explain changes in the
natural world and to explain and predict political relationships and dynasty
changes. Apparently, he bases these explanations on his understanding of qi as
a pervasive but differentiated power controlling both natural and
sociopolitical events. (See also, Antonio S. Cua,
Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy, NY: Routledge. 2003, p.616.)
A
political treatise by a group of scholars in the court of Liu An in the
beginning of the Han dynasty entitled Huainanzi holds
that qi encompasses everything in reality, including life. Also, qi is viewed as
the origin of the universe and is understood to have endless power of change
and transformation. Considering that qi is often synonymous with energy, the
theory of the scholars in the court of Liu An can be compared to Newton's third
law which states that energy cannot be created nor destroyed; rather energy can
only be transformed from one form to another. According to Huainanzi,
all things in nature are the materialization of a fundamental qi and all
changes are due to changes in the character of qi.
Other
practitioners of qigong (again, to understand why there are many viewpoints on
this, see our History of Daoist Sects) hold the position that qigong originally
developed as preventative and curative healthcare. Thus many practitioners of
Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) hold the position that qigong was the first
formal branch of their discipline. TCM combines the use of medicinal herbs,
acupuncture, food therapy, massage, therapeutic exercises, and the
understanding that health management in mind, body, and emotions depend on the
flow of qi within the human body. In acupuncture, Qi is believed to flow
within the human body by way of meridians. Invisible paths under the skin in
which qi flows through the body, similar to how blood flows through veins and
arteries. Because of this meridian system, it is believed that emotional health
and physical health are connected. In Chinese medical qigong, external physical
symptoms of disease are viewed as signals indicating internal imbalances in
energy. In the traditional Chinese medical view, the cause of all disease is
linked to a critical imbalance among the energies of the body, and for this
reason the cure always entails restoring the balance among the energies of the
human system and the forces of nature. So for example, if a patient's symptoms
include aching eyes and blurry vision, it is likely that a competent
practitioner of TCM would suspect an imbalance in liver energy and not
necessarily an eye problem because it is believed that internal liver qi
manifests itself externally in the condition of the eyes and vision. Diagnosing
and treating diseases and ailments with regard to qi/energy balance is considered
a distinctive aspect of TCM. These include self-care through personal practice
but also the laying on of hands, or/and transmission of energy from healer to
patient which is understood as emitting energy.
As for
Qi in Chinese Martial Arts, early qigong exercises were based on alleged animal
combat movements, such as the tiger, snake, crane, dragon, and leopard. (See
for example Wong Doc-Fai and Jane Hallander, Shaolin
Five Animals Kung-Fu, 1988,4-5.) However, in this case there was no concept of using
the mind to guide energy or synchronizing physical movements with breathing
yet. And as a result of qigong being incorporated into ‚various faiths’ one
could say, many variations of qigong have developed throughout history. Thus
currently, there are over 2000 classifications of qigong in China. But of course
the three philosophies or religions that have had the most effect on Chinese
civilization are Daoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism. Practitioners of each of
these philosophies adapted qigong and focused the practice on their own ideas
and principles.
In fact
Daoist styles of qigong practice, the ultima te goal
of the practitioner is to achieve spiritual immortality. Traditional Daoist
qigong practitioners believe that qigong exercises that "refine
energy" are significant for achieving spiritual immortality. An aspect of
Daoist qigong is fasting. During these fasting periods, medicinal herbs are
consumed, and the amount of time spent performing qigong exercises increases
because of the belief that when one fasts the body can be trained to draw
energy from sources besides food such as air. The Confucian perspective on
qigong in turn approached the practice as something that could be used to calm
one's mind and better control emotions. In Confucianism, it is believed that
control of one' s mind and body is beneficial to harmony in society.
Case Study P.3: A modern
transformation of Confucianism.
According
to Confucianism, social and political problems have their roots in an
unbalanced mind. Therefore, one of the foundational beliefs in Confucian
branches of qigong is that if individuals can maintain peaceful minds, a
peaceful society will follow. Confucianism in general teaches the importance of
considering community over self, so that in Confucian styles of qigong, the
focus of practice is ultimately for social reasons, unlike qigong in Buddhism
and Daoism in which qigong is practiced mainly for individual spiritual
reasons. Confucianism yet also used to be a hierarchical system. Thus, when
Confucian philosophy became initially, accepted as a state creed, it led to
corruption among those of higher status in society. Of course then there was
also the ‚reform-Confucianism’ with a system of spiritual development similar
to that of Daoism and Buddhism. Many Buddhist sects in turn believed that
qigong without spiritual insight and growth, such as for example Daoist sexual
yoga, could lead to excessive indulgence in sexual activity. For such reasons,
Buddhist concepts and virtues such as celibacy, non-violence, compassion, etc.
became the most important.
According
to a many practitioners of qigong, their, history can be divided into four
periods. Pre-Han Dynasty (before approximately 206 RC.); Han Dynasty- Liang
Dynasty (approximately 206 RC. - 502 A.D.); Liang Dynasty - End of the Qing
Dynasty (approximately 502 B.C. 1911 A.D.); End of the Qing Dynasty – Present.
This then is given as the reason why qigong is viewed as ancient and as being
compiled over thousands of years. Thus Qigong is believed to have originated in
China before the written record, and it is believed that tribal shamans
discovered what they perceived to be a link between a ceremonial dance and
health benefits especially for those who frequently performed the dance.(See
for example the from an adherent perspective written, A Complete Guide to
Chi-Gung: Harnessing the Power of the Universe, by Daniel Reid (Boston:
Shambhala, 2000), p. 27.)
Thus in
Qigong, there is a belief that if one can understand the cycles of nature on
earth as well as cycles in space, one can ultimately learn how to harmonize
these natural patterns with human life and use these natural patterns to attain
a healthy body and a long life. This belief is considered to be older than the
written record because tribal shamans during prehistoric times are eredited with the evolution of the belief. (For this see
George F. Heyne, The Social Significance of the
Shaman among the Chinese Reindeer-Evenki. Asian Folklore Studies, 58.2 (1999):
377.)
Qigong
practitioners furthermore believe that during the Zhou period the Yijing (Book of Changes), a book of divination and
philosophy, developed. This idea however clashes with that of modern scholars,
who hold that the Yijing was compiled by various
people over a span of time and that the real origin is remote and a matter of
speculation. (See Liu I-Ming, The Taoist I Ching (Boston, 1986),3.)
Thus
just as Yin and Yang are believed to be complementary poles of the same
concept, qigong practitioners adopted this understanding to the concepts of
movement and stillness, and practitioners hold that movement and stillness are
relative poles in a single unified state of existence. not separate phenomena. During
the so called ‚Warring States Period’ practitioners believe (mythic as they were)
sages such as Laozi and Confucius supposed to have lived. But it is not until
approximately 221 RC., that a merchant known as Lu Buwei
was able to make a significant contribution to qigong. During this, now called
the Qin era, it is believed that Lu Buwei put
together a collection of practices integrating human activity with seasonal
cycles. This compilation of ancient practices also contains Lu Buwei' s commentary and was entitled spring and Autumn Book
of Lu. During the following, Han dynasty in turn, a figure named Hua To is
believed to have been influential by developing an exercise called wuqinxi, or "five animal play.“ The five animal play
is described by practitioners. Wei Boyang is another
influential figure in qigong who is believed to have lived during the Han Era.
The text entitled Cang tong qi or ''The Union of the
Three Parts" is attributed to him, and now, discusses deep breathing
exercises and qigong sexual techniques.
In
approximately 300 A.D., a text entitled Huang Ting Nei
Jing, translated as the "Classic of Cultivation of the Lower Dantian, located in the abdomen in the navel area. The
middle Dantianin turn is located in the Solar Plexus
region, and the upper Dantian is located in the
forehead region (the same region where Hindus believe the "third eye"
is located.) Although it is unclear who the author of Huang Ting Nei Jing was, this now indeed became the prevalent
theoretical basis of qigong. It asserted internal energy as the focus of qigong
Also during this era, Ge Hong, a philosopher, physician, and qigong
practitioner, wrote the Bao Pu Zi.a work is believed
to be very significant to the development of qigong because the author
distinguishes two goals of qigong: physical longevity and spiritual immortality
by means of alchemical transformations.
Case Study P.4: From Outer to
Inner Chinese Alchemy.
In this
era also, a Buddhist monk from India, allegedly named Bodhidharma, visited the
Shaolin Temple in China. The Chinese referred to him as Da Mo.and
is said to have instructed both monks and martial artists in the Shaolin
Temple. Da Mo introduced the pranayama breathing exercises and yoga stretching
techniques of India, and where either by himself or/and his students combined
with the indigenous Chinese daoyin and play of the
Five Beasts regimes. In any case Da Mo' s legacy developed into Chan Buddhism,
which spread as far as Korea and Japan, where it also became known as Chan, or
'Zen' Buddhism.
Case Study P.5: The Development of Chan (Zen) Buddhism.
But none
is more popular today as the traveling Shaolin monks to be seen in major cities
near you, as recently (critically) introduced by
us.
After
the Mongols overthrew the Song dynasty, founding the Yuan dynasty, Taijiquan
developed, where a certain Zhang San feng credited as its creator.
Taijiquan, is different from the Shaolin
Temple's practice presumeably emphasizing the
external (Wai Dan) where Taijiquan is said to emphasize the internal (Nei Dan). At least this was the theory popularised
in the USA by Jwing-Ming Yang who published it a few
years later in, The Root of Chinese Qigong: Secrets for Health. Longevity, and
Enlightenment (YMAA Publication Center, 1997). During the Qing dynasty, another
popular style of qigong developed, similar to Taijiquan, called Baguazhang. Baguazhang is
believed to have been developed by Dong Haichuan. It
involves constant circular maneuvers based on the eight trigrams in the Yijing. A more in depth and differentiated approach of at
least Neidan, follows next.
Case Study P.6: Original Neidan.
During
the Qing dynasty, another popular style of qigong developed, similar to
Taijiquan, called Baguazhang. Baguazhang
is believed to have been developed by Dong Haichuan.
It involves constant circular maneuvers based on the eight trigrams in the Yijing.
It was
only during the 17th century however that what until now was an underground and
isolate phenomena Qigong and its related occult arts, became first popularised in a particular region of China where it became
at the same time a political movement. In fact since the general
population did not know much if anything at all, about qigong, many who now
became interested in the practice were deceived, as in the Boxer Uprising,
commonly referred to as the ''Boxer Rebellion," a movement against foreign
ideas such as Christianity as much as against foreigners themselves. The
subject of part two of this study where we will detail until now, unknown
aspects of the Boxer rebellion, many of the Boxers were merely peasants who
underwent simplified and sped-up versions of qigong training. Here they were
also tricked into believing that they were empowered with invulnerability, and
assured that their bodies would be immune to the bullets and cannon fire of
foreign weapons. Thousands of these boxers, armed with nothing but swords and
spears, were then sent out only to dy in mass attacks
against the advanced military of Western troops. (See Part 2 for never before
published details)
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