Qigong (Chi Kung) is
a product of the twentieth century, but is rooted in the earlier tradition.
The term qi (pneuma, breath) is mentioned in the Chinese Tang (618- 907) and Song
(960-1127) period. In modern times, it has taken on a new meaning and refers
not only to Nourishing Life (yangsheng) but also to
martial and therapeutic techniques.
The idea of
"nourishing" (yang) is commen in Chinese
thought: one can nourish life (yangsheng), the inner
nature (yangxing), the body (yangxing),
the whole person (yangshen), the will (yangzhi), and the mind (yangxin).
The term yangsheng designates techniques based on the
essence, the inner or outer breath, and the spiritual force (jing, qi, shen); these techniques
are grounded on physiological, psychological, and behavioral principles and
include gymnastics (daoyin), massage, breathing (fuqi, xingqi), sexual hygiene (fangzhong shu), diets (bigu), healing, visualizations , and rules of daily
behavior. One of the earliest documents where similar practices are mentioned
is in the Mawangdui manuscripts dating to about 200
BCE. Discovered in 1973.
The term qigong
however, signifies both "practice" and "efficiency" of qi,
it can embrace all types of techniques, both traditional and modern.
Depending on the
doctrinal and social context of these practices, historians currently divide
qigong into six branches: a Taoist qigong, a Buddhist qigong, a Confucian
qigong, a medical qigong, a martial qigong, and a popular qigong (including the
methods of rural exorcists and sorcerers). According to the features of the
practice, they also distinguish between a "strong qigong" (ying qigong), incorporating martial techniques, and a
"soft qigong" (ruan qigong). The latter is
further divided into two groups:
1. Jinggong, or the practice of qi in rest, which
traditionally was called "sitting in oblivion" (zuowang)
by Taoists, "sitting in dhyana" (chanzuo)
by Buddhists, and "quiet sitting" (jingzuo)
by Neo-Confucians. These sitting practices can be accompanied by breathing,
visualization, and mental concentration.
2.Donggong, or the
practice of qi in movement, which includes the gymnastic traditions (daoyin) of medical doctors, Taoists, and Buddhists. The
induction of spontaneous movements (zifa donggong) is derived from traditional trance techniques (Despeux 1997).
New practices
essentially created in the 1980s were much debated and criticized by
traditional religious personalities, qigong followers, and authorities.
Certain practices, such as the "Soaring Crane form" (hexiang zhuang), lead to
spontaneous movements that were said to cause illness, probably because of
their close connection with trance states. Some techniques that emphasize
collective practices and promote the establishment of a so-called "area of
qi" (qichang) to increase efficiency were also
strongly criticized; for instance, the method taught by Yan Xin , a master who
organized collective qigong sessions in stadiums with a capacity of up to about
ten thousand, was very popular but aroused suspicion among the authorities. As
for the therapeutic technique of the qigong master who heals people at a
distance through his energy or his hands-a method that actually revives the
traditional Taoist practice of "spreading breath" (buqi)-the possible existence of an "outer
energy" (waiqi ) and its efficacy have been
debated at length.
Official qigong
institutions appeared in the 1950s and 1960s and were at first exclusively
concerned with therapeutics. One of the main qigong promoters at the time was
Liu Guizhen (1920-83). A mend of Mao Zedong, he
returned to his village after developing a stomach ulcer and practiced breathing
and meditation exercises under a Taoist master. Later he created a new method
called "practice of inner nourishment" (neiyang
gong) and founded qigong therapy institutes in Tangshan mill (Hebei) in 1954
and in Beidaihe (Hebei) in 1956. These institutes
were destroyed during the Cultural Revolution, and then partly reconstructed
after 1980 when qigong flourished again.
From that time,
qigong began to invade the town parks where masters and followers practice in
the morning. Some religious personalities who described themselves as
"qigong masters" felt encouraged to revive forgotten or little known
practices, or to create new techniques based on the traditional ones. Qigong
had both enthusiasts and critics among the authorities. Although its
therapeutic function was always essential, certain officials wanted to move
qigong beyond the realm of individual practice and propound it to the masses
and to society, even to the state, because they saw in it economic advantages
and the possibility of asserting the specific identity of China, its power and
its modernity, Qigong was taught in schools and universities and became the
object of international congresses and scientific research, and numerous
specialized journals and books were published on the subject. Other officials
viewed it as charlatanism and superstition, and mistrusted the subversive
potential of certain movements. An example is the Falun gong (Practices of the
Wheel of the Law), a form of qigong allegedly rooted in the Buddhist tradition,
which in 1999 organized demonstrations in Beijing and other Chinese cities and
was outlawed shortly afterward.
What we
euphemistically refer to as “the Politics of Qigong” thus is when qigong
entered the political arena.
An early example of
this was Taiping dao (or Way of Great Peace) rebellion,
organized in 184. Also called the Yellow Turban rebellion, it represented a
critical factor in the fall of the Han dynasty and was one of the movements
that contributed to the milieu from which Taoist religion arose. It is presumed
that they used the Taipingjing (one of the earliest
Taoist scriptures) as central text and inspiration. (Benjamin Penny in, The
Encyclopedia of Taoism, 2008, p.1156.)
The doctrine of the
Taiping jing is based on the idea, already present in
Warring States texts, that an era of Great Peace (taiping)
will descend on the empire if its governance is based on returning to the Dao.
The slogan used by
the Yellow Turbans was, "The Blue Heaven (qingtian)
is already dead, the Yellow Heaven (huangtian) will
replace it." This is often read in political terms as conforming to the
movement of the five elemental phases (wuxing). As
each phase was accorded a color, the cycle of dynasties was seen to follow a
cycle of colors. Since the Han ruled under the phase of Fire, the subsequent
dynasty had to rule under Soil, and the color attributed to Soil was yellow.
Thus, the idea that the Yellow Heaven was about to be established signaled the
movement's revolutionary intentions. However, for this reading to be consistent
the Yellow Turbans should really have referred to the demise of the Red Heaven,
the color adopted by the Han. It is the idea that the Yellow Heaven presaged
the new society of Great Peace led to the adoption of the yellow headscarves (huangjin turbans is the traditional rendering) that gave
rise to their name. Other examples of politicized notions of yangsheng or qigong, follow underneath.
Like the various
forms of yoga, qigong and Chinese (inner) Alchemy, exist of various
extremely detailed spiritual practices and belief system that are not a
religion itself yet can be found to be incorporated into many different
religious traditions as well as into non-religious traditions such as medicine,
martial arts, and secular scientific inquiry. The Politics
of Qigong in Modern China P.1.
In 2006, the Chinese
Government ordered the closure of Bingdian Weekly
because the weekly argued that “official textbooks inaccurately depicted the
1900 Boxer Rebellion, a nationalist uprising” in which thousands of Chinese
Christians and many foreigners were killed. Not surprising, in the same article
the WSJ also concluded,” Beijing ’s anxiety over a news media that is
increasingly driven by market forces and a burgeoning sense of professionalism,
rather than official propaganda directives. Authorities have jailed several
Chinese journalists in the past two years and moved to tone down feistier
publications.” (WSJ, China Shuts Down Outspoken Publication, January 25, 2006
9:13 a.m.) P.2: The Celestial and Terrestrial Spirits of Qigong:
Introduction to Politics of Qigong P.3 to 5
about the Taiping Rebellion.
Of the great Eurasian states beyond Europe, China (and to a lesser degree
Japan) had always been the richest, strongest and least accessible to European
influence. Politics of Qigong P.3.
TheTaiping Rebellion. It began in South West China with the
visions of a millenarian prophet. Politics of
Qigong P.4.
Politics
of Qigong P.5: End of Taiping, Burying the Dead.
Politics of
Qigong P.6: The Boxer Uprising.
Politics
of Qigong P.7: Chinese security
officials did not expect the sudden appearance of the Falun Gong, whose members
surrounded government offices in Beijing, though the organization had operated
as a legal entity registered under Chinese regulations. Falun Gong.
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